English -PHRASAL VERBS- CHAPTER 27

A phrasal verb is an idiom which consists of a verb followed by a preposition, a verb followed by an adverb, or a verb followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition. The phrasal verbs in the following examples are printed in bold type.
e.g. I ran into an old friend.
We put off washing the dishes.
They all look up to him.

In these examples, the phrasal verb to run into consists of the verb to run followed by the preposition into, the phrasal verb to put off consists of the verb to put followed by the adverb off, and the phrasal verb to look up to consists of the verb to look followed by the adverb up, followed by the preposition to.

Many phrasal verbs are used more often in informal English than in formal English. In most cases, the ideas expressed by such phrasal verbs may also be expressed by other phrases which are more likely to be used in formal English.

For instance in the table below, the phrasal verbs used in the preceding examples are listed in the left-hand column and other phrases with the same meanings are listed in the right-hand column.

Informal	Formal
to run into	to meet unexpectedly
to put off	to postpone
to look up to	to admire

It should be noted that the use of many phrasal verbs varies among the different dialects of English. For instance, in order to express the idea of contacting someone by means of the telephone, the expression to ring someone up is frequently used in British English; whereas the expression to call someone is frequently used in American English.

Because of differences in dialect, the forms of the verbs and the meanings given may vary from one dictionary to another. In addition, some phrasal verbs have more than one meaning. The meanings provided in this chapter are samples of meanings which are used in North American English.

1. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition
Some phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by a preposition. As has been seen in previous chapters, it is very common for English verbs to be followed by prepositions. However, in the case of a phrasal verb, the verb followed by the preposition forms an expression with an idiomatic meaning.

For instance, the phrasal verb to come across is an idiomatic expression with the meaning to find. Similarly, the phrasal verb to frown on is an idiomatic expression with the meaning to disapprove of.
e.g. We came across an old diary while we were cleaning out the attic.
The workers frowned on the practice of smoking in the office.

It should be noted that some phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition can be used in the Passive Voice.
e.g. The practice of smoking in the office was frowned on by the workers.
The children were looked after by their aunt.
In these examples, the phrasal verbs to frown on and to look after are used in the Passive Voice.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by a preposition. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Verbs Followed by Prepositions

abide by: adhere to	We abided by the rules.
account for: explain	He accounted for the discrepancy.
ask for: request	They asked for an extension.
bank on: depend on	We are banking on good weather tomorrow.
bear with: be patient with	Please bear with the delay.
border on: be near, be next to	Their excitement bordered on hysteria.
break into: enter by force	Thieves broke into the store.
build on: develop from	We want to build on our success.
burst into: suddenly enter	He burst into the room.
call for: demand	This calls for an investigation.
call on: ask, order	We will call on you to give a speech.
come across: find accidentally	She came across some old papers.
come upon: discover	We came upon a small lake.
confide in: share a secret	The two friends confided in each other.
count on: depend on	We are counting on you.
cut across: use a short route	I cut across the parking lot.
dawn on: realize	Finally the truth dawned on him.
deal in: stock, sell	He deals in gold and jewels.
deal with: handle successfully	She can deal with any situation.
decide on: settle on	They decided on a course of action.
dispense with: proceed without	The chairman dispensed with formalities.
dispose of: get rid of	If he moves, he will have to dispose of his furniture.
dwell on: emphasize	He dwelt on the risks involved.
enlarge on: say more about	Please enlarge on your proposal.
enter into: begin, commence	The brothers entered into an agreement.
expand on: say more about	Please expand on what you said before.
frown on: disapprove of	Absenteeism is frowned on.
get at: reach	The store was so crowded, it was hard to get at the food.
get into: become involved with	I don't want to get into an argument.
get over: recover from	Have you got over the flu yet?
get through: survive, finish	I don't know how I can get through all this work.
go against: oppose	Don't go against the rules.
go over: review	I would like to go over the report again.
go through: examine in detail	Have you gone through the evidence?
go with: look good with	Those shoes don't go with that outfit.
grow on: become more attractive to	I'm sure the idea will grow on you.
guard against: take precautions	We must guard against possible attack.
hinge on: depend on	Everything hinges on her decision.
inquire into: investigate	Please inquire into the alternatives.
keep to: adhere to	The train will keep to the schedule.
laugh at: mock, make fun of	Don't laugh at me!
launch into: start	He launched into an explanation.
leaf through: turn the pages	She leafed idly through the book.
live on: survive using	What did you live on?
look after: take care of	I will look after the children.
look into: investigate	He will look into the situation.
look through: examine quickly	We looked through the magazines while we were waiting.
part with: give up reluctantly	She refused to part with her necklace.
pick on: be unkind to	Because he was the youngest, the other boys picked on him.
prey on: hunt and eat; disturb	Ospreys prey on fish; the idea preys on my mind.
provide for: prepare for	We have provided for any emergency.
reason with: try to persuade	It is hard to reason with an angry person.
reckon on: calculate on	I hadn't reckoned on being the center of attention.
rise above: be superior to	He rose above his circumstances and managed to succeed.
run across: find accidentally	They ran across some interesting information.
run into: meet accidentally	I ran into my cousin downtown.
run over: injured by a vehicle	Children must be careful not to be run over by cars.
see through: not be deceived by	I instantly saw through the disguise.
send for: ask to be sent	You will have to send for your transcripts.
settle for: reluctantly accept	Since there was no kale, we had to settle for cabbage.
side with: support in a dispute	Why did you side with him?
sit through: sit and endure	It was all I could do to sit through the lecture without falling asleep.
stand by: support	I hope you will stand by me.
stand for: represent	What does the abbreviation etc. stand for?
stick to: adhere to	We shall stick to the original plan.
stumble across: find accidentally	He stumbled across an interesting fossil.
survive on: survive using	During the winter, we had to survive on turnips and parsnips.
take after: resemble an ancestor	He takes after his grandfather.
tamper with: interfere with	Someone has tampered with the lock.
touch on: mention	She touched on many important subjects.
verge on: approach	His behavior verges on rudeness.
wade through: slowly peruse	We had to wade through a pile of documents.
watch over: guard	The shepherd watched over the sheep.

See Exercise 1.

a. The position of the object of the preposition
The object of a preposition usually follows the preposition, whether the object is a noun or a pronoun. In the following examples, the objects are underlined.
e.g. We have launched into a new project.
We have launched into it.

In these examples, the noun project and the pronoun it are the objects of the preposition into of the phrasal verb to launch into. Both the noun object and the pronoun object follow the preposition.

See Exercise 2.

b. The position of an adverb of manner modifying the verb
If a verb is followed by a preposition, an adverb of manner may be placed between the verb and the preposition. In the following examples, the adverbs of manner are underlined.
e.g. We reasoned patiently with the little girl.
I leafed quickly through the book.

In the first example, the adverb of manner patiently is placed between the verb reasoned and the preposition with of the phrasal verb to reason with. In the second example, the adverb of manner quickly is placed between the verb leafed and the preposition through of the phrasal verb to leaf through.

See Exercise 3.

c. Stress in spoken English
When a verb followed by a preposition occurs at the end of a clause, it is usually the verb which is stressed in spoken English. In the following examples, the words which are stressed are printed in bold type.
e.g. No one likes to be laughed at.
I need someone to confide in.

In the first example, the verb laughed followed by the preposition at occurs at the end of a clause, and the verb laughed is stressed. In the second example, the verb confide followed by the preposition in occurs at the end of a clause, and the verb confide is stressed.

It should be noted that, when used in a phrasal verb at the end of a clause, the prepositions after, into and over are often pronounced with somewhat greater emphasis than the verb. In this case, both the verb and the preposition are stressed. For example:
The twins are easy to look after.
The building would be difficult to break into.
You'll never guess whom I ran into.
I heard that someone was run over.

The prepositions above, across and through are also occasionally emphasized in this way. For example:
The research papers were difficult to wade through.

d. Expressions in which the verb has an object
In the case of some phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition, the verb and the preposition may each have an object. In the following examples, the objects are underlined.
e.g. I can make nothing of the situation.
We talked my sister into agreeing.

In the first example, the verb make of the phrasal verb to make of has the object nothing, and the preposition of has the object situation. In the second example, the verb talked of the phrasal verb to talk into has the object sister, and the preposition into has the object agreeing.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition, where the verb may have an object. The objects of the verbs are underlined. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. The last example illustrates the use of the Passive Voice.

Verbs followed by Objects followed by Prepositions

drag into: involve unwillingly	Don't drag me into this discussion!
draw into: involve gradually	We managed to draw her into the conversation.
drum into: teach by repetition	We drummed the safety rules into the children.
frighten into: control by fear	The little girl frightened her brother into obeying her.
hold against: blame for	Please don't hold my mistakes against me.
lay before: present to	We will lay the evidence before the court.
let into: allow to share	Shall we let her into the secret?
make of: understand	Can you make anything of this message?
read into: find other meanings	You are reading too much into her remarks.
set against: make antagonistic	She likes to set people against one another.
set on: order to attack	We will set our dogs on any intruders.
talk into: persuade	Can you talk him into changing his mind?
thrust upon: force upon	We thrust the responsibility upon the treasurer.
write into: add to in writing	The terms were written into the lease.

2. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb
Many phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Some of these phrasal verbs are intransitive and some are transitive.

For instance, the intransitive phrasal verb to show up is formed from the verb to show followed by the adverb up. In the following example, the phrasal verb does not have an object.
At ten o'clock, her brother showed up.

The following are examples of intransitive phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Intransitive Verbs followed by Adverbs

blow over: pass	I wonder when the trouble will blow over.
boil away: disappear by boiling	If the water boils away, the stew will burn.
boil over: overflow by boiling	The soup boiled over.
bounce back: recover	He bounced back from his previous defeat.
buckle down: work seriously	You may fail your courses if you don't buckle down to work.
catch on: be widely accepted	Do you think the idea will catch on?
cloud over: become overcast	Although it clouded over in the afternoon, the rain held off.
die down: become less	After a few days, the excitement died down.
double up: bend over	We were doubled up with laughter.
drop in: visit	Please drop in any time.
fade away: become less	The sound gradually faded away.
fall off: become less	Attendance at the concerts has fallen off.
get away: escape	I hooked a fish, but it got away.
get by: barely succeed	She studied just hard enough to get by.
give in: admit defeat	I will never give in!
go on: continue	Please go on. Don't let me interrupt you.
grow up: become an adult	What do you want to do when you grow up?
keep on: persist in	He kept on changing the subject.
level off: stop rising	Prices finally leveled off.
log on: contact a computer	Do you know how to log on?
log off: break contact with a computer system	The system was overloaded, so I had to log off.
move in: take possession of living quarters	When are you moving in?
move out: give up possession of living quarters	He moved out yesterday.
nod off: go to sleep	Half the bus passengers nodded off.
pass out: faint	It was so hot, I almost passed out.
pitch in: help	If everyone pitches in, the work will be done in a few minutes.
play along: pretend to agree	Let's play along until we find out what his plans are.
pull in: arrive (of vehicles)	The bus pulled in next to the curb.
pull out: leave (of vehicles)	The train pulled out at ten o'clock.
set off: leave	They set off at six o'clock in the morning.
settle down: become peaceful	After the excitement, the students found it difficult to settle down.
settle in: become used to	How are you settling in to your new job?
show up: arrive	She showed up at noon.
stay up: not go to bed	We stayed up until midnight.
step down: resign	He stepped down for health reasons.
step in: intervene	The government had to step in to save the business.
take off: leave the ground	The plane took off on time.
touch down: land (of planes)	The plane touched down.
tune in: find a station on the radio	We tuned in to listen to the hockey game.
watch out: beware	Watch out! The roads are icy.
wear off: gradually disappear	The feeling of excitement gradually wore off.

See Exercise 4.

The transitive phrasal verb to sort out is formed from the verb to sort followed by the adverb out. For example:
We sorted out the papers.
In this example, the phrasal verb sorted out has the object papers.

The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Transitive Verbs followed by Adverbs

back up: support	I will back up your story.
bail out: rescue	If you run into difficulties, who will bail you out?
break in: make something new fit for use	I broke in my new hiking boots.
breathe in: inhale	We breathed in the fresh air.
breathe out: exhale	I breathed out a sigh of relief.
bring back: return	She brought back her library books.
bring around: persuade	We gradually brought her around to our point of view.
bring up: raise	Bringing up children is never easy.
butter up: flatter	We buttered him up, hoping that he would agree to our proposal.
call in: ask to assist	I think it is time we called in an expert.
call off: cancel	We called off the meeting.
call up: telephone	Why don't you call him up?
cheer on: cheer, encourage	I will be there to cheer you on.
chop down: fell	They chopped down the dead tree.
clean up: tidy	The mayor asked everyone to help clean up the city streets.
fend off: repel	The goalie fended off every attack.
ferret out: find with difficulty	We managed to ferret out the information.
figure out: solve, understand	I can't figure out what happened.
fill in: complete	Please fill in this form.
fill out: complete	I filled out the form.
fill up: make full	We filled up the glasses with water.
give back: return	I gave back the bicycle I had borrowed.
give off: send out	Skunk cabbage gives off an unpleasant odor.
hand down: give to someone younger	The tradition was handed down from father to son.
hand in: give to person in authority	The students handed their assignments in to the teacher.
hand on: give to another person	I am not sorry to hand the responsibility on to you.
hand over: transfer	We had to hand the evidence over to the police.
hang up: break a telephone connection	After receiving a busy signal, I hung up the phone.
hold back: restrain, delay	He is so enthusiastic, it is hard to hold him back.
iron out: remove	I am sure we can iron out every difficulty.
knock out: make unconscious	Boxers are often knocked out.
lap up: accept eagerly	The public lapped up the story.
lay off: put out of work	The company laid off seventy workers.
leave behind: leave, not bring	I accidentally left my umbrella behind.
leave out: omit	Tell me what happened. Don't leave anything out!
let down: disappoint	We will let him down if we don't arrive on time.
live down: live so that past faults are forgotten	This will be hard to live down!
look up: find (information)	We looked up the word in a dictionary.
make up: invent	She likes to make up stories.
pass up: not take advantage	I couldn't pass up such an opportunity.
pension off: dismiss with a pension	He was pensioned off at the age of sixty.
phase in: introduce gradually	The new program will be phased in over the next six months.
phase out: cease gradually	The practice will gradually be phased out.
pick up: collect	You may pick up the papers at the office.
pin down: get a commitment	When the guest speaker is pinned down, we can set a date for the conference.
play down: de-emphasize	He played down the importance of the news.
point out: draw attention to	She pointed out the advantages of the proposal.
polish off: finish	We polished off the rest of the apple pie.
pull down: demolish	Many old buildings are pulled down to make way for new ones.
pull off: succeed	Do you think she can pull off her plan?
put away: put in proper place	It is time to put the toys away.
put back: return to original location	Please put the book back on the shelf.
put off: postpone	We cannot put off the meeting again.
reel off: recite a long list	She reeled off a long list of names.
rope in: persuade to help	We roped in everyone we could to help with the work.
rub out: erase	Be sure to rub out all the pencil marks.
rule out: remove from consideration	None of the possibilities can be ruled out yet.
scale down: reduce	Because of lack of funds, we had to scale down our plans.
sell off: dispose of by selling	We sold off all the books and furniture.
set back: delay	This could set back the project by several years.
shout down: stop from speaking by shouting	The crowd shouted down the speaker.
shrug off: dismiss as unimportant	He attempted to shrug off the mistake.
single out: select from others	You have been singled out for special attention.
size up: assess	I quickly sized up the situation.
sort out: organize	It will take some time to sort out this mess.
sound out: talk with to learn the opinion of	We attempted to sound him out.
stammer out: stammer	They stammered out their apologies.
sum up: summarize	He summed up the discussion in a few well-chosen words.
summon up: gather	I attempted to summon up my courage.
take in: absorb	We tried to take in the new information.
take out: invite to a restaurant	May I take you out for supper?
take over: assume control	They will take over at the beginning of June.
talk over: discuss	Let us talk it over before we decide.
tear up: destroy by tearing	She tore up the letter.
think over: consider	I need some time to think it over.
think up: invent	What will they think up next?
track down: search for and find	We finally tracked him down at the bookstore.
trade in: give as part payment	Why don't you trade in your old vacuum cleaner for a new one?
try on: test clothes by putting them on	I tried on the new suit, but it didn't fit me.
try out: test by using	Would you like to try out my fountain pen?
turn away: refuse admission	The event was so popular that many people had to be turned away.
turn back: reverse direction	Every fall the clocks must be turned back by one hour.
turn off: deactivate by using a switch	I turned off the radio.
turn on: activate by using a switch	Please turn on the light.
water down: dilute	The soup has been watered down.
wear out: gradually destroy by wearing or using	My jacket is wearing out, although it is only a year old.
write down: make a note	I wrote down the instructions.
write off: cancel, regard as	They were forced to write off several irretrievable debts.
write up: compose in writing	I used my notes to write up the report.

See Exercise 5.

a. The position of the object of the verb
In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, if the object of the verb is a noun, the object can usually either follow or precede the adverb. In the following examples, the objects are underlined.
e.g. I called off the meeting.
I called the meeting off.
In the first example the object meeting follows the adverb off, while in the second example the object meeting precedes the adverb off.

However, in the case of a few phrasal verbs, a noun object must usually follow the adverb.
e.g. We attempted to smooth over the disagreement.
In this example, the phrasal verb to smooth over is followed by the noun object disagreement. In this case, the object disagreement cannot be placed before the adverb over.

The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs where a noun object must usually follow the adverb. Each phrasal verb is accompanied by its meaning and an example of its use. The objects of the verbs are underlined.

Verbs followed by Adverbs followed by Noun Objects

drum up: raise	She has drummed up support for the plan.
paper over: repair superficially	They attempted to paper over their differences.
smooth over: improve	We tried to smooth over the situation.

In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, if the object of the verb is a pronoun, the object must usually precede the adverb. In the following examples, the pronoun objects are underlined.
e.g. I called it off.
We attempted to smooth it over.
In these examples, the pronoun object it precedes the adverbs off and over.

See Exercise 6.

Most transitive phrasal verbs may be used in the Passive Voice.
e.g. The meeting was called off by me.
The disagreement was smoothed over.
In these examples, the phrasal verbs to call off and to smooth over are used in the Passive Voice.

b. The position of an adverb of manner modifying the verb
In the case of a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, the verb and the adverb usually may not be separated by an adverb of manner. In the following example, the adverb of manner is underlined.
e.g. I hurriedly called off the meeting.
In this example, the adverb of manner hurriedly precedes the phrasal verb called off. The adverb hurriedly may also be placed at the beginning or the end of the sentence, but may not be placed between the verb called and the adverb off.

c. Stress in spoken English
When a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb occurs at the end of a clause, it is usually the adverb which is stressed in spoken English. In the following examples, the words which are stressed are printed ion bold type.
e.g. How did that come about?
Please drop in whenever you have time.
In the first example, the verb come followed by the adverb about occurs at the end of a clause, and the adverb about is stressed. In the second example, the verb drop followed by the adverb in occurs at the end of a clause, and the adverb in is stressed.

d. Ergative verbs
It should be noted that there are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, which have the same meaning whether they are used transitively or intransitively. For example:
The engineer slowed down the train.
The train slowed down.

In the first example, the phrasal verb to slow down is used transitively, with the object train. In the second example, the phrasal verb to slow down is used intransitively, without naming the originator of the action. In these two examples, it can be seen that the object of the transitive verb is the subject of the intransitive verb. However, the general meaning of the two sentences is the same. Verbs which can be used in this way may be referred to as ergative verbs.

The following are examples of expressions which can function as ergative phrasal verbs. Each ergative phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and examples of its use.

Ergative Phrasal Verbs

blare out: make a loud sound	The loudspeakers blared out the music.
	The music blared out.
blow up: destroy by an explosion	Troops blew up the bridge.
	The bridge blew up.
break up: break into pieces	The icebreaker broke up the ice.
	The ice broke up.
burn down: destroy by fire	We burned down the old barn.
	The old barn burned down.
calm down: become calm	I calmed down the child.
	The child calmed down.
dry out: become dry	The sun dried out the earth.
	The earth dried out.
get across: transmit	We got our point across to the audience.
	Our point got across to the audience.
liven up: become lively	He livened up the party.
	The party livened up.
pull through: recover from, survive	The doctor pulled her through the illness.
	She pulled through the illness.
roll up: wrap into a cylinder	I rolled up the window blind.
	The window blind rolled up.
shut down: close, stop working	They shut down the factory.
	The factory shut down.
wake up: stop sleeping	I woke her up.
	She woke up.
wash out: remove by washing	We washed out the dye.
	The dye washed out.
wear away: gradually remove	Water wore away the rock.
	The rock wore away.
wear out: gradually destroy by using	I wore out the sweater.
	The sweater wore out.

3. Distinguishing between verbs followed by prepositions and verbs followed by adverbs
It has been seen that the position of pronoun objects, adverbs of manner and stress in spoken English varies according to whether a verb is followed by a preposition or by an adverb.

These differences are summarized in the following table. The verbs to sit and to turn are used as examples. The verb to sit is followed by on used as a preposition, whereas the verb to turn is followed by on used as an adverb.

Verb followed by Preposition	Verb followed by Adverb
Pronoun object is placed	Pronoun object is placed
after the preposition:	before the adverb:
I sat on it.	I turned it on.
Adverb of manner may be placed	Adverb of manner may not be
between verb and preposition:	placed between verb and adverb:
I sat quietly on it.	I quietly turned it on.
Verb is stressed:	Adverb is stressed:
This is what I sat on.	This is what I turned on.

Because of the differences summarized above, it is important to be able to distinguish between a verb followed by a preposition, and a verb followed by an adverb.

a. Adverb phrases of location compared with phrasal verbs followed by objects
In many cases, it is necessary to distinguish between an ordinary verb followed by an adverb phrase of location, and a phrasal verb followed by an object.
e.g. I turned up the street.
I turned up the volume.

In the first example, the verb turned is followed by the adverb phrase of location up the street. In the second example, the phrasal verb turned up is followed by the object volume. In this example, the phrasal verb turned up has the meaning increased.

In the first example, street is the object of the preposition up. If the object is changed to a pronoun, the pronoun must follow the preposition:
I turned up the street.
I turned up it.

In the second example, volume is the object of the phrasal verb turned up. If the object is changed to a pronoun, the pronoun must precede the adverb up.
I turned up the volume.
I turned it up.

In the first example, if the verb is modified by an adverb of manner, the adverb of manner may precede the adverb phrase of location:
I turned up the street.
I turned quickly up the street.

In the second example, if the verb is modified by an adverb of manner, the adverb of manner may not be placed between the two parts of the phrasal verb:
I turned up the volume.
I quickly turned up the volume.

See Exercises 7 and 8.

b. Words used as prepositions or adverbs
It is also necessary to be able to distinguish between a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by a preposition, and a phrasal verb consisting of a transitive verb followed by an adverb. In many cases it is possible to make the distinction by means of the preposition or adverb following the verb.

For example, the following words are used in phrasal verbs as prepositions, but are not usually used in phrasal verbs as adverbs following transitive verbs:

after	against
at	before
by	for
from	into
of	to
toward	with
without

In contrast, the following words are used in phrasal verbs as adverbs following transitive verbs, but are not usually used in phrasal verbs as prepositions:

along	aside
away	back
behind	down
forward	out
together	up

It should be noted that of these words, aside, away, back, forward, out and together are usually never used as prepositions. In contrast, the words along, behind, down and up are often used as prepositions, but are not usually used as prepositions in phrasal verbs.

See Exercises 9 and 10.

The following words present more difficulty, since they can be used in phrasal verbs both as prepositions and as adverbs following transitive verbs:

across	around or round
in	off
on or upon	over
through

Thus, it is advisable to study which phrasal verbs use these words as prepositions, and which phrasal verbs use these words as adverbs. The following table gives examples of phrasal verbs containing each of these words. The left-hand column gives phrasal verbs consisting of verbs followed by prepositions, while the right-hand column gives phrasal verbs consisting of transitive verbs followed by adverbs.

Words used as Prepositions or Adverbs

Verb + Preposition	Transitive Verb + Adverb
come across	get across (an idea)
cut across	put across (an idea)
run across
stumble across
Verb + Preposition	Transitive Verb + Adverb
hang around	bring round
lounge around
mill around
pass around
rally round
show around
Verb + Preposition	Transitive Verb + Adverb
confide in	break in
deal in	breathe in
join in	call in
	fill in
	hand in
	phase in
	rope in
	take in
	trade in
Verb + Preposition	Transitive Verb + Adverb
glance off	call off
keep off	fend off
warn off	give off
	lay off
	pair off
	pension off
	polish off
	pull off
	put off
	reel off
	sell off
	shrug off
	turn off
	write off
Verb + Preposition	Transitive Verb + Adverb
bank on	cheer on
border on	hand on
build on	try on
call on	turn on
come upon
count on
dawn on
decide on
dwell on
enlarge on
expand on
frown on
grow on
hinge on
live on
pick on
prey on
reckon on
survive on
thrust upon
touch on
verge on
Verb + Preposition	Transitive Verb + Adverb
get over	take over
go over	talk over
run over	think over
watch over	paper over
	smooth over
Verb + Preposition	Transitive Verb + Adverb
break through	pull through
get through
go through
leaf through
look through
sail through
scrape through
see through
sit through
wade through

See Exercise 11.

4. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition
Some phrasal verbs consist of an intransitive verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition. For example:
We passed by.
We passed by the library.
In the first example, the word by of the phrasal verb passed by functions as an adverb. In the second example, the word by of the phrasal verb passed by functions as a preposition which has the object library.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs which contain words which may function either as adverbs or as prepositions. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and examples of its use. The objects of the prepositions are underlined.

Intransitive Verbs followed by words which may function either as Adverbs or Prepositions

break through: appear	The sun broke through.
	The sun broke through the clouds.
do without: survive without	We had to do without.
	We had to do without electricity.
glance off: hit and bounce off	The ball glanced off.
	The ball glanced off the wall.
go without: not have	They went without.
	They went without food.
hang around: stay near	We hung around.
	We hung around the movie theater.
join in: become involved in	I joined in.
	I joined in the game.
lounge around: relax in	We lounged around.
	We lounged around the living room.
mill around: (of a crowd) move randomly	The students milled around.
	The students milled around the lobby.
pass by: pass	I passed by.
	I passed by the house.
rally round: gather to give support	We rallied round.
	We rallied round our class president.
sail through: succeed easily	She sailed through.
	She sailed through the exam.
scrape through: barely succeed	They scraped through.
	They scraped through the course.
turn off: leave a road	We turned off.
	We turned off the main highway.

a. Expressions in which the verb has an object
There are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition, where the verb may have an object. In the following examples the objects are underlined.
e.g. We passed the candies around.
We passed the candies around the class.
In each of these examples, the verb passed of the phrasal verb to pass around has the object candies. In the first example, the word around functions as an adverb, while in the second example, the word around functions as a preposition with the object class.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition, where the verb may have an object. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and examples of its use. The objects of the verbs and prepositions are underlined. The last example illustrates the use of the Passive Voice.

Verbs followed by objects followed by words which may function either as Adverbs or Prepositions

cross off: put a line through	I crossed his name off.
	I crossed his name off the list.
pass around: distribute	I passed the papers around.
	I passed the papers around the class.
show around: conduct on a tour	We showed the visitors around.
	We showed the visitors around the city.
tide over: provide for temporarily	This money will tide me over.
	This money will tide me over the weekend.
warn off: warn to leave	We were warned off.
	We were warned off the premises.

5. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb followed by a preposition
There are several commonly used phrasal verbs which consist of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition. For example:
I went along with the idea.
In this example, the phrasal verb went along with consists of the verb to go, followed by the adverb along, followed by the preposition with which has the object idea.

The following table gives examples of phrasal verbs which consist of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.
Verbs followed by Adverbs followed by Prepositions

add up to: amount to	It is hard to see what that adds up to.
back down from: withdraw, avoid	She never backs down from a challenge.
back out of: not fulfill	I wish I could back out of the agreement.
boil down to: can be reduced to	All his arguments boil down to a belief in the supernatural.
bow out of: withdraw	He bowed out of the race.
brush up on: refresh knowledge of	I must brush up on my English.
carry on with: continue with	We carried on with our conversation.
catch up to: overtake	The boy ran quickly to catch up with his friends.
clean up after: tidy for	She spent half her time cleaning up after the children.
come down to: can be reduced to	Your choices come down to these.
come down with: become ill with	She came down with a cold.
come out in: develop	He came out in a rash.
come up against: meet an obstacle	They came up against many difficulties.
come up with: produce	She came up with a solution to the problem.
creep up on: approach undetected	Old age tends to creep up on one.
cry out for: urgently require	The education system is crying out for improvement.
cut back on: reduce	The government has cut back on spending.
do away with: abolish	We want to do away with delays.
face up to: accept and deal with	It is best to face up to one's problems.
fall back on: turn to for help	Because of unexpected expenses, we had to fall back on our savings.
fit in with: be suited to	You don't fit in with this group.
fool around with: not be serious, have as a hobby	He likes to fool around with computers.
get away with: not be punished	He got away with being late for school.
get down to: begin dealing seriously with	It is time to get down to business.
get in on: manage to participate in	I want to get in on the planning for the new school.
give up on: stop trying	I've given up on the situation.
go along with: agree, not resist	I'm willing to go along with your idea.
go back on: break a promise	He never goes back on his word.
go through with: fulfill, carry out	Are you going to go through with your plan to conduct a survey?
grow out of: become too big for	My son has grown out of most of his clothes.
hold out for: not compromise	We want to hold out for better conditions.
keep up with: be on the same level as	She has a hard time keeping up with her brother.
lead up to: be a preparation for	The first thirty chapters of the book lead up to the dramatic conclusion.
live up to: maintain a standard	She has lived up to her reputation as a great singer.
log on to: contact a computer	She logged on to the new system.
look down on: regard as inferior	He looks down on his classmates.
look forward to: anticipate	I'm looking forward to the holidays.
look out for: watch for	Look out for fallen branches.
look up to: admire	We looked up to her.
make up for: compensate for	She tried to make up for her past mistakes.
pull out of: leave (of vehicles)	The train pulled out of the station.
push on with: go ahead, continue	I must push on with my work.
put up with: endure, tolerate	Bus passengers must often put up with crowded conditions.
read up on: read about	Whenever I travel, I like to read up on the place I am going to visit.
rub off on: acquire from someone	Some of his enthusiasm has rubbed off on me.
run up against: meet	One runs up against many different kinds of people.
send away for: order by mail	We sent away for warm winter boots.
stick up for: defend, support	Will you stick up for me?
stock up on: lay in supplies	We should stock up on bananas.
talk down to: speak patronizingly	He always talks down to people younger than he is.
walk away with: win easily	They walked away with all the prizes.
watch out for: beware of	Watch out for snakes.
wriggle out of: avoid	She always tries to wriggle out of her responsibilities.
zero in on: focus on	Let us zero in on the heart of the problem.

a. Expressions in which the verb has an object
There are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition, where the verb may have an object. In the following example, the objects are underlined.
e.g. We played them off against each other.
In this example, the verb played of the phrasal verb to play off against has the object them, while the preposition against has the object each other.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs consisting of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition, where the verb may have an object. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. The objects of the phrasal verbs are underlined.

Verbs followed by Objects followed by Adverbs followed by Prepositions

get over with: undergo, finish	If I must visit the dentist, I prefer to get it over with as soon as possible.
let in on: allow to share	We let them in on the secret.
play off against: encourage to fight	In the last century, the British weakened their enemies by playing them off against one another.
put down to: attribute to	We put his bad temper down to fatigue.
put up to: urge to do wrong	She put me up to playing a trick on the teacher.
take out on: vent bad feelings on	She took her dissatisfaction with her job out on her neighbors.
take up on: accept an offer	I would like to take you up on your offer.
talk out of: dissuade from	We tried to talk him out of retiring.

English -CONJUNCTIONS- CHAPTER 28

A conjunction may be used to indicate the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in the rest of a sentence. The conjunctions in the following examples are printed in bold type.
e.g. We could go to the library, or we could go to the park.
He neither finished his homework nor studied for the test.
I went out because the sun was shining.

1. Coordinate conjunctions
Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical constructions; for instance, two words, two phrases or two clauses.
e.g. My friend and I will attend the meeting.
Austria is famous for the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people.
The sun rose and the birds began to sing.

In these examples, the coordinate conjunction and is used to join the two words friend and I, the two phrases the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people, and the two clauses the sun rose and the birds began to sing.

The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are and, but and or. In addition, the words nor and yet may be used as coordinate conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate conjunction is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. Note the use of inverted word order in the clause beginning with nor.

Coordinate Conjunctions

and: in addition	She tried and succeeded.
but: however	They tried but did not succeed.
or: alternatively	Did you go out or stay at home?
nor: and neither	I did not see it, nor did they.
yet: however	The sun is warm, yet the air is cool.

As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which have the same subject, the subject need not be repeated. For instance, in the example she tried and succeeded, the pronoun she acts as the subject for both the verb tried and the verb succeeded. It should also be noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which do not have the same subject, the two coordinate clauses may be separated by a comma or semicolon, in order to make the meaning clear.

See Exercise 1.

2. Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.
e.g. Either you should study harder, or you should take a different course.

The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are both ... and, either ... or and neither ... nor. In the table below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use. Note that in the construction if ... then, the word then can usually be omitted.

Correlative Conjunctions

both ... and	He is both intelligent and good-natured.
either ... or	I will either go for a walk or read a book.
neither ... nor	He is neither rich nor famous.
hardly ... when	He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted.
if ... then	If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.
no sooner ... than	No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came.
not only ... but also	She is not only clever, but also hard-working.
rather ... than	I would rather go swimming than go to the library.
scarcely ... when	Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.
what with ... and	What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relatives.
whether ... or	Have you decided whether you will come or not?

See Exercise 2.

3. Subordinate conjunctions
As has been seen in previous chapters, subordinate clauses may begin with relative pronouns such as that, what, whatever, which, who and whom, as well as with words such as how, when, where, wherever and why. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. The house, which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles.
I wonder how he did that.

In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as subordinate conjunctions. In the following examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g. Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat.
Let us wait until the rain stops.

The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of use.

Subordinate ConjunctionsAs
1. because: As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. when: We watched as the plane took off.

After
1. later in time: After the train left, we went home.

Although or though
1. in spite of the fact that: Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.

Before
1. earlier than: I arrived before the stores were open.

Because
1. for the reason that: We had to wait, because we arrived early.

For
1. for, because: He is happy, for he enjoys his work.

If
1. on condition that: If she is here, we will see her.

Lest
1. for fear that: I watched closely, lest he make a mistake.
Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause with lest.

Providing or provided
1. on condition that: All will be well, providing you are careful.

Since
1. from a past time: I have been here since the sun rose.
2. as, because: Since you are here, you can help me.

So or so that
1. consequently: It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. in order that: I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually followed by that in formal English.
e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.

Supposing
1. if: Supposing that happens, what will you do?

Than
1. used in comparisons: He is taller than you are.

Unless
1. except when, if not: Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.

Until or till
1. up to the time when: I will wait until I hear from you.

Whereas
1. because: Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.
2. on the other hand: He is short, whereas you are tall.

Whether
1. if: I do not know whether she was invited.

While
1. at the time when: While it was snowing, we played cards.
2. on the other hand: He is rich, while his friend is poor.
3. although: While I am not an expert, I will do my best.

In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses.

As if
1. in a similar way: She talks as if she knows everything.

As long as
1. if: As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. while: He has lived there as long as I have known him.

As soon as
1. immediately when: Write to me as soon as you can.

As though
1. in a similar way: It looks as though there will be a storm.

Even if
1. in spite of a possibility: I am going out even if it rains.

In case
1. because of a possibility: Take a sweater in case it gets cold.

Or else
1. otherwise: Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.

So as to
1. in order to: I hurried so as to be on time.


See Exercise 3.

Certain words, such as after, before, since and until may function either as prepositions or subordinate conjunctions. However it should be noted that in some cases different words must be used as prepositions and subordinate conjunctions, in order to express similar meanings. This is illustrated in the table below.

Differing Prepositions and Conjunctions

Meaning	Preposition	Conjunction
for this reason	because of	because
in spite of this	despite	although
at the time when	during	while
in a similar way	like	as if

In the following examples, the objects of the prepositions, and the verbs of the subordinate clauses are underlined.
Preposition: They were upset because of the delay.
Conjunction: They were upset because they were delayed.

Preposition: Despite the rain, we enjoyed ourselves.
Conjunction: Although it rained, we enjoyed ourselves.

Preposition: We stayed indoors during the storm.
Conjunction: We stayed indoors while the storm raged.

Preposition: It looks like rain.
Conjunction: It looks as if it will rain.

In the above examples, it can be seen that the prepositions because of, despite, during and like have the noun objects delay, rain and storm; whereas the subordinate conjunctions because, although, while and as if introduce subordinate clauses containing the verbs were delayed, rained, raged and will rain.

It should be noted that like is sometimes used as a subordinate conjunction in informal English.
e.g. It looks like it will rain.
However, this use of like is considered incorrect in formal English.

See Exercise 4.

4. Connecting adverbs
Connecting adverbs are often used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in a preceding clause, sentence or paragraph. In the following examples, the connecting adverbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
We knew what to expect. Therefore, we were not surprised at what happened.

In the first example, the connecting adverb however shows that there is a conflict between the idea expressed in the clause I was too tired and the idea expressed in the preceding clause I wanted to study. In the second example, the connecting adverb therefore shows that there is a cause and effect relationship between the idea expressed in the sentence we knew what to expect, and the clause we were not surprised at what happened.

Connecting adverbs are similar to conjunctions in that both may be used to introduce clauses. However, the use of connecting adverbs differs from that of conjunctions in the ways indicated below.

a. Stress and punctuation
In spoken English, a connecting adverb is usually given more stress than a conjunction. Correspondingly, in formal written English a connecting adverb is usually separated from the rest of a clause by commas, whereas a conjunction is usually not separated from the rest of a clause by commas.

In addition, in formal written English a clause containing a connecting adverb is often separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon; whereas a clause beginning with a conjunction is usually not separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
I wanted to study, but I was too tired.
In the first example, the connecting adverb however is preceded by a semicolon, and is separated from I was too tired by a comma. In the second example, the conjunction but is preceded by a comma rather than by a semicolon, and is not separated from I was too tired by a comma.

It should be noted that when no conjunction is present, a semicolon may be used to connect two main clauses. For example:
The clouds dispersed; the moon rose.
In this example, the two main clauses the clouds dispersed and the moon rose are connected by a semicolon rather than by a conjunction.

b. Connecting adverbs used to connect sentences
Unlike conjunctions, connecting adverbs may be used in formal English to show the relationship between ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:
The wind was strong. Thus, I felt very cold.
In this example, the connecting adverb thus shows that there is a cause and effect relationship between the ideas expressed by the two sentences the wind was strong and I felt very cold.

In informal English, coordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:
The wind was strong. And I felt very cold.
However, this use of coordinate conjunctions is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

c. Position in a clause
A subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning of a clause. However, as was seen in the discussion on adverbs, a connecting adverb may be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a clause. This is illustrated below.
e.g. His visit was unexpected. Nevertheless, I was pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was, nevertheless, pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him, nevertheless.

d. Examples of connecting adverbs
The following are examples of words which may be used as connecting adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Connecting Adverbs

accordingly: so	He was very persuasive; accordingly, I did what he asked.
also: in addition	She is my neighbor; she is also my best friend.
besides: in addition	I like the job. Besides, I need the money.
consequently: so	She had a fever; consequently, she stayed at home.
furthermore: in addition	You should stop smoking. Furthermore, you should do it at once!
hence: for that reason	He is a good friend. Hence, I was not embarrassed to ask him for help.
however: but	We wanted to arrive on time; however, we were delayed by traffic.
likewise: in addition	The region is beautiful. Likewise, the climate is excellent.
moreover: in addition	She is very intelligent; moreover, she is very ambitious.
nevertheless: but	They are proud. Nevertheless, I like them.
nonetheless: but	The ascent was dangerous. Nonetheless, he decided to attempt it.
otherwise: if not, or else	We should consult them; otherwise, they may be upset.
still: but	It is a long way to the beach. Still, it is a fine day to go swimming.
then: 1. next, afterwards	We went shopping, then we had lunch.
2. so	If you are sure, then I must believe you.
therefore: for that reason	I was nervous; therefore, I could not do my best.
thus: so, in this way	He travelled as quickly as possible. Thus, he reached Boston the next day.

As indicated in the following table, several connecting adverbs have meanings similar to those of the conjunctions and, but or so.

Connecting Adverbs with meanings similar to And, But and So

Similar to And	Similar to But	Similar to So
also	however	accordingly
besides	nevertheless	consequently
furthermore	nonetheless	hence
likewise	still	therefore
moreover		thus

See Exercises 5 and 6.

5. Parallel construction
The repetition of a particular grammatical construction is often referred to as parallel construction. This is illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. I am neither angry nor excited.
The resort contains tennis courts, swimming pools and a snack bar.
In the first example, the two phrases neither angry and nor excited exhibit parallel construction. In the second example, the three phrases tennis courts, swimming pools and a snack bar exhibit parallel construction.

In English, it is considered preferable to use parallel construction whenever parallel ideas are expressed.

Thus, whenever possible, parallel construction should be employed when correlative conjunctions are used. In the following example, the correlative conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g. Incorrect: He has both a good education, and he has good work habits.
Corrected: He has both a good education and good work habits.
The first sentence is incorrect, since both and and are followed by different grammatical constructions. Both is followed by the phrase a good education; whereas and is followed by the clause he has good work habits. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the clause he has good work habits into the phrase good work habits.

The following example illustrates the use of parallel construction with the correlative conjunctions neither ... nor.
e.g. Incorrect: She turned neither right nor to the left.
Corrected: She turned neither right nor left.
or Corrected: She turned neither to the right nor to the left.
The first sentence is incorrect, since neither is followed by a single word; whereas nor is followed by a prepositional phrase. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the phrase to the left to the word left. Alternatively, as shown in the third sentence, two prepositional phrases can be used.

See Exercise 7.

Parallel construction should also be used when listing a series of ideas. For example:
Incorrect: The hotel is charming, well-situated and is not expensive.
Corrected: The hotel is charming, well-situated and inexpensive.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the series, charming and well-situated, are adjectives, whereas the last item, is not expensive, contains a verb. The second sentence has been corrected by changing is not expensive to the adjective inexpensive.

The following is another example of the use of parallel construction when listing a series of ideas.
e.g. Incorrect: I like to ski, skating and swimming.
Corrected: I like skiing, skating and swimming.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first item in the series, to ski, is an infinitive, whereas the second and third items, skating and swimming, are gerunds. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the infinitive to ski to the gerund skiing.